Electronic Sales Contract The primary form of agreement governing the relationship between a trader and a consumer is the sales contract. Article 14 of the French Law on Confidence in the Digital Economy of 2004 addresses distance selling, a concept long recognized. Examples include mail order sales, television shopping, telephone purchases, and purchases made through...Read More

Circumstances Leading to the Discharge of a Guarantor Upon the conclusion of a guarantee contract, the guarantor becomes liable to the creditor, and this liability serves as security for the creditor. However, the guarantor may be released from this responsibility for various reasons. Any circumstances that result in the extinction of the principal debtor’s obligation...Read More

Debt Securities in the Recovery of Claims Based on Documents and Contracts A creditor, in seeking to recover a claim, is exposed to the risk that the debtor may fail to make payment or may become insolvent. In certain cases, the debtor may engage in genuine or simulated transactions or act with the intent to...Read More

The Concept of a Shipping Order and an Overview of Its Main Stages Today, more than 80 percent of goods transportation is carried out by sea. Maritime transport encompasses a wide range of concepts and practical considerations, and familiarity with them is essential. One of the key concepts in maritime shipping is the shipping order....Read More

International Treaties Under the customary definition, a treaty is an agreement concluded between two or more subjects of international law, intended to create legal effects, and governed by international law. Pursuant to Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties dated 23 May 1969, a treaty is defined as an...Read More

Legal Issues Faced by Startups Startups are projects in which a group’s collective effort transforms a preliminary idea into a product and prepares it for market entry. In practice, startups progress through all stages of development by relying on trial and error while applying fundamental principles and basic frameworks. Starting a startup involves numerous legal...Read More

Liabilities Arising from Maritime Collisions Following the occurrence of a maritime collision between two vessels, the competent maritime court may be confronted with one of the following situations and issue decisions accordingly: One of the two vessels is declared at fault. Both vessels are found to be at fault to a certain extent, and as...Read More

Legal Considerations and Key Points in Drafting a Joint Venture Agreement in Iran One of the most widely used international contracts is the joint venture agreement, also referred to as a joint investment agreement. Under this type of contract, the parties undertake to carry out a specific activity jointly and share the resulting profits and...Read More

Customs Taxes and Their Types In general, governments impose and collect customs duties on the import of goods from foreign countries. Customs taxes and duties take various forms, and their rates are set by the government. A tariff refers to the tax or duty imposed on goods traded between different countries or regions and serves...Read More

Master Bill of Lading and Its Use in International Transportation A bill of lading is one of the most essential documents used across various modes of transportation. Under governmental regulations, transportation is generally not permitted without a bill of lading. By recording key shipment details, this document clarifies the legal and operational aspects of transport.Read More