Claiming a Debt Without Written Evidence In some situations, individuals may provide money or other assets to another person without obtaining a receipt, promissory note, or any written acknowledgment. This often happens due to family relationships, friendship, or personal trust, and it can later create serious legal difficulties. For this reason, individuals are generally advised...Read More

Bankruptcy in Parent Companies Under Iranian law, the concept of bankruptcy is largely addressed in the context of the establishment and operation of economic entities, and comparatively little attention has been given to the broader economic importance of removing inefficient enterprises from the commercial environment. The current legal framework primarily focuses on the procedural aspects...Read More

Conditions for Issuance of a Certificate of Maturity Under Iranian law, persons who have not reached legal maturity may not dispose of their financial and non-financial affairs without authorization from their guardian, legal custodian, or court-appointed trustee. It is important to note that the legal concept of maturity has a meaning distinct from physical development....Read More

Company Articles of Association The Articles of Association are the principal constitutional document of joint-stock companies and serve as the identity document for commercial companies. They define the relationships among shareholders, the scope of authority of the general meetings and the board of directors, and the company’s internal governance framework. In this text, we address...Read More

Who Is an International Lawyer? Many people assume that an international lawyer is a legal professional who holds licenses to practice law in several countries, or that such a lawyer holds a single worldwide license. This common assumption is incorrect. In practice, it is not feasible for a single person to meet the bar admission...Read More

Key Considerations in Drafting the Articles of Association of a Parent Company On 19 February 2007, the Research Department of the Securities and Exchange Organization issued a model articles of association for investment companies as a proposed text, with the objective of standardization across investment companies and holding structures. Under Clause 3 of that model,...Read More

Civil and Criminal Liability for Maritime Collisions As a general rule, fault forms the basis of liability, but not every shortcoming is subject to legal pursuit. In maritime law, only fault that legally results in damage, or materially contributes to the occurrence of damage, is actionable. In light of the above, maritime liability is established...Read More

Endorsement of Negotiable Instruments Endorsement is a method of transferring and assigning negotiable instruments by writing a statement accompanied by a signature, or by affixing a signature alone, on the back of the instrument. In commercial law, this act is known as endorsement. Endorsement greatly facilitates the transfer of negotiable instruments, and, in modern practice,...Read More

Credit Insurance and Bank Guarantees One of the most significant concerns facing professionals in industry, commerce, and banking is risk and the methods available to mitigate it. Risk arises whenever there is uncertainty about the outcome of an action or situation, particularly when at least one potential outcome is unfavorable. Given the prevalence of various...Read More

Contractual Conditions Contractual conditions refer to provisions inserted into an agreement under which one or both parties undertake to provide security, to act as a guarantor, or to comply with specific requirements in relation to their obligations. Where it is stipulated in a contract that a party must provide a specific asset as security, and...Read More