Legal Concepts of River Boundary Delimitation With Emphasis on Navigable Rivers The Middle East has experienced some of the most persistent political disputes. Approximately 90 percent of the region’s water resources are transboundary. The Islamic Republic of Iran, located in a strategic region and connected to numerous international rivers, is not an exception to these...Read More

Forgery of Birth Certificate and National ID Card A National ID Card and a Birth Certificate are identity documents, and like other official documents, they may be forged. Assuming another identity and forging a Birth Certificate or National ID Card under an identity other than one’s true identity constitutes forgery. Iranian law criminalizes the forgery...Read More

Operating a Company Without Registration and Its Legal Consequences In many cases, launching a business and engaging in certain commercial activities require forming and registering a company. However, some founders and managers, especially at the early stages, may choose to begin operations without registration due to incomplete documents or an inability to complete the registration...Read More

Purchase and Sale of Vehicle Allocation Certificates Today, automobiles are widely regarded as investment assets, and many individuals seek to invest by purchasing vehicles. Due to the significant difference between the factory price of a new vehicle and its price in the open market or on a commodity exchange, many buyers seek to acquire vehicle...Read More

Defect Option in Real Estate Transactions In agreements concluded between individuals, the parties may include contractual conditions to reassure themselves or the other party. For an agreement to be valid, any condition included must be lawful. In addition to allowing parties to determine contractual terms, the law also recognizes a right to terminate under specific...Read More

Unlawful Entry into a Private Residence The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes a person’s home as part of their private sphere. It protects it, alongside life, property, dignity, rights, housing, and occupation, against any unlawful interference except as permitted by law. Accordingly, unauthorized entry into another person’s residence has been criminalized, and...Read More

Claiming a Debt Without Written Evidence In some situations, individuals may transfer money or other valuable assets to another person without obtaining a receipt, a promissory note, or any written acknowledgment, often because of family ties, friendship, or trust. This practice can later create serious legal complications. As a general rule, it is strongly recommended...Read More

Bankruptcy of a Private Joint Stock Company Bankruptcy occurs when a trader or commercial company is unable to pay debts that have become due or is incapable of fulfilling its financial obligations and contractual commitments toward other companies or individuals. In such circumstances, the company must formally declare bankruptcy, and upon verification of insolvency, the...Read More

International Air Law The Paris Convention was the first international treaty to address the legal regime of airspace. It recognized the principle of complete and exclusive sovereignty of states over the airspace above their territory, including land territory and territorial waters. At the same time, it acknowledged freedom of navigation over the high seas and...Read More

Housing Tax in Iran One of the principal sources of government revenue used to cover public expenditures is taxation, levied on individuals’ and entities’ assets or income, as well as on the value added of goods and services produced in society. Paying tax, in effect, reflects the level of public participation in financing the country’s...Read More